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Aplicaci�n de estrategias de comprensi�n lectora para mejorar la fluidez lectora

 

Application of reading comprehension strategies to improve reading fluency

 

Aplica��o de estrat�gias de compreens�o de leitura para melhorar a flu�ncia de leitura

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Correspondencia: mfquinonez@espe.edu.ec

 

 

Ciencias de la Educaci�n ���

Art�culo de Investigaci�n

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* Recibido: 23 de octubre de 2022 *Aceptado: 12 de noviembre de 2022 * Publicado: 5 de diciembre de 2022

 

1. Universidad t�cnica de Manab�, Ecuador.
2. Universidad t�cnica de Manab�, Ecuador.

Resumen

Esta investigaci�n tuvo como objetivo determinar c�mo las estrategias de comprensi�n lectora mejoran la fluidez lectora. Los participantes fueron estudiantes de bachillerato de una instituci�n educativa p�blica del Ecuador. El an�lisis consider� las estrategias de comprensi�n lectora m�s aplicadas por diez docentes y su experiencia en cuanto al proceso de utilizaci�n de las estrategias de comprensi�n lectora, el proceso de selecci�n y el tiempo de aplicaci�n. Del mismo modo, analiz� los resultados de una evaluaci�n del nivel de fluidez lectora aplicada a sesenta y ocho estudiantes de bachillerato luego de utilizar estrategias de comprensi�n lectora. La metodolog�a aplicada indic� que la informaci�n se recopil� a partir de una encuesta, una r�brica para evaluar a los estudiantes contemplando el proceso de uso de estrategias de comprensi�n lectora y una lista de cotejo para determinar c�mo se aplicaron las estrategias de comprensi�n lectora en actividades relacionadas con la mejora de la fluidez lectora. Los resultados mostraron que al seguir estos procedimientos, los estudiantes mejoraron su fluidez y comprensi�n de un segundo idioma. Esta situaci�n beneficia el aprendizaje, dominio y uso de una segunda lengua.

Palabras Clave: Estrategias de lectura; proceso de lectura; fluidez; comprensi�n; habilidades ling��sticas.

 

Abstract

This research aimed to determine how reading comprehension strategies improves reading fluency. The participants were baccalaureate students from a public educational institution in Ecuador. The analysis considered the reading comprehension strategies most applied by ten teachers and their experience regarding the process of using reading comprehension strategies, the selection process, and the time of application. In the same way, it analyzed the results of an assessment of reading fluency level applied to sixty-eight baccalaureate students after using reading comprehension strategies. The applied methodology indicated that the information was collected from one survey, a rubric to assess students contemplating the process of using reading comprehension strategies, and a checklist to determine how reading comprehension strategies were applied in activities related to improving reading fluency. The results showed that by following these procedures, students improved their fluency and understanding of a second language. This situation benefits the learning, mastery, and use of a second language.

Keywords: reading strategies; reading process; fluency; comprehension; language skills.

Resumo

Esta pesquisa teve como objetivo determinar como as estrat�gias de compreens�o de leitura melhoram a flu�ncia de leitura. Os participantes foram estudantes de bacharelado de uma institui��o educacional p�blica do Equador. A an�lise considerou as estrat�gias de compreens�o leitora mais aplicadas por dez professores e sua experi�ncia quanto ao processo de utiliza��o das estrat�gias de compreens�o leitora, o processo de sele��o e o momento de aplica��o. Da mesma forma, analisou os resultados de uma avalia��o do n�vel de flu�ncia em leitura aplicada a sessenta e oito alunos do ensino m�dio ap�s o uso de estrat�gias de compreens�o leitora. A metodologia aplicada indicou que as informa��es foram coletadas a partir de uma pesquisa, uma rubrica para avaliar os alunos contemplando o processo de uso de estrat�gias de compreens�o de leitura e uma lista de verifica��o para determinar como as estrat�gias de compreens�o de leitura foram aplicadas em atividades relacionadas � melhoria da flu�ncia de leitura. Os resultados mostraram que, seguindo esses procedimentos, os alunos melhoraram sua flu�ncia e compreens�o de um segundo idioma. Essa situa��o beneficia o aprendizado, o dom�nio e o uso de um segundo idioma.

Palavras-chave: lendo estrat�gias; processo de leitura; flu�ncia; compreens�o; habilidades de linguagem.

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Introducci�n

This study is critical because in acquiring a second language, learners have many drawbacks when developing communication skills, one of which is reading fluency (Taguchi, Gorsuch, & Sasamoto, 2006). And one of these drawbacks of need to fully develop strategies in the teaching process. Therefore, this research aims to use reading comprehension strategies necessary to improve reading fluency, which allows the student to be competent in a linguistic skill that, in addition to learning a second language, will enable excellent mastery and understanding (Schwanenflugel, 2009).

The focus is on reading comprehension strategies since reading is one of the most important intellectual work tools that human beings have been able to develop (Bhasin, 2021). Moreover, its direct connection with thought, language, intelligence, imagination, and creativity allows access to total learning, where text comprehension is the cornerstone of this dynamic. Therefore, a characteristic stands out in this dynamic of the interaction of thoughts: reading fluency, an essential skill for the assimilation of the message, which implies the automation of the decoding process, the cognitive aspect, and the application of the superior executive functions of the brain (Ho, 2018). In addition, the brain contributes to finding the meaning of what reads and, therefore, the textual meaning (Koen, 2019).

The study highlights that applying reading comprehension strategies in the classroom plays a significant role since it establishes links of meaning, knowledge, and association that produce interconnections of stored and new ideas that allow the understanding of the text and therefore improve fluency. In addition, this study presents a description of ways for applying reading comprehension strategies to increase reading fluency, the reading comprehension strategies most applied by teachers to increase reading fluency, and an analysis of the effects of applying reading comprehension strategies in activities related to reading fluency. Finally, it concludes that one of the best ways to improve reading fluency is the correct application of reading comprehension strategies. However, it would be necessary to define and propose the most suitable plan to improve reading fluency more precisely. For this reason, this research presents how the application of reading comprehension strategies could improve reading fluency.

 

OBJECTIVES

To determine how the application of reading comprehension strategies improves reading fluency.

Specific objectives:

1. To describe ways for applying reading comprehension strategies to increase reading fluency.

2. To identify which reading comprehension strategies are most applied to increase reading fluency.

3. To analyze the effects of applying reading comprehension strategies in activities related to reading fluency.

 

LITERATURE REVIEW

The application of reading comprehension strategies

In recent times, analyzing the reading comprehension level of children and young people has generated significant confusion because, despite the tremendous scientific and technological advances, this skill has yet to exceed acceptability rates for the comprehensive development of texts. More than 19 million young people, at the end of secondary school, do not achieve the required levels of competence in reading ability. The problems that arise show cognitive weaknesses that do not allow the abstraction of ideas from a text, making the reader's relationship with textual decoding ineffective and hindering interactive communication that enables the construction of meanings. Moreover, the gap deepens when learners read in a language other than their mother tongue (Unesco, 2017).

It is worthwhile to start with the importance of applying strategies that favor good reading comprehension and establishing the right environment for the reading process, creating important moments that contribute to the dynamics of interaction between words, thought, and memory. The alternative ways to present the reading should not be independent of the nature of the reader, and they should consider their knowledge, cultural background, and linguistic level. Therefore, reading comprehension strategies should motivate them to relate to the text and its meanings.

In the classroom setting and predisposed to the development of language skills, reading is the best mechanism to activate psychological processes, the relationship with memory, and the interconnection between signifiers and meanings. This way, people select texts related to their age and interests, predisposing their attention and active participation. The application of strategies should carry on initial or pre-reading activities during reading and post-reading, where the treatment of the decoded and given meaning text begins assimilating and generating ideas. Also, students develop the communicative process between reader and author, in addition to learning, strengthening visual fixation, lexical decoding, knowledge abstraction, intonation, and precision in articulation.

According to Diamond (2008), the strategies to be used before reading are:

• Make predictions about what is going to read.
• Generate questions according to the title.
• Ask questions about the possible plot.

While reading, it is essential:

• Formulate possible events.
• Ask about the characters that participate in the narration.
• Devise possible endings according to the details already read.

At the end of the reading, you can:

• Determine the accuracy of predictions.
• Extract primary and secondary ideas.
• Highlight relevant and decisive events.
• Answer questions.

These activities, among others devised for the reading process, will enhance the interpretation of texts, understanding of events, development of sequential reasoning, and explanation of the text's ideas and those suggested by the reader's knowledge. In addition, acquiring mental structures that contemplate words and meanings in an L2 will make it possible to master and use a new language, estimating that practice will provide greater linguistic and comprehension skills.

It is vital to notice that the strategies for beginners work like a thermometer where they show what they understood or did not understand about a specific text. Thus, �Reading strategies indicate how readers conceive a task, what textual cues they pay attention to, how they make sense of what they read, and what they do when they don't understand� (Block, 1986 as cited in Song, 1998, p. 41). A detail to consider is that reading helps students to gradually enrich their vocabulary since every time they do not fully understand the text, they will force to read over and over again until they do and, in this way, relate to a second language. Teachers can apply reading comprehension strategies from the simplest to the most complex to ensure the reader achieves the best understanding. According to Song (1998) �They range from simple strategies, such as simply reading to difficult segments and guessing the meaning of unknown words from the context to more complete strategies, such as summarizing and relating what is read to the reader's prior knowledge� (p. 41). On the other hand, Hirsch (2003) states, �Effective teaching of reading comprehension to all children has turned out to be a recalcitrant problem.� (p.10).

Another aspect to consider is that reading comprehension strategies allow readers to discern what is most important in a text, which indicates a good use of them. Moreover, it makes it easier for the reader to understand texts of the language they want to learn, �the strategies Hypertext of reading can be considered as the decision rule that a reader follows to navigate through the different nodes of a hypertext. [�] that contain interesting information related to the previous paragraphs read� (Salmeron, 2010, p. 171) and �Reading comprehension strategies are also paramount for people with [�] their ability to understand written text. People can improve their comprehension skills and become more efficient readers with just a few techniques.� (Escar, 2022, para. 2) The above shows how essential reading comprehension strategies are in acquiring a second language. In this way, learners assimilate the target language more quickly, extracting the most important from a text, understanding the vocabulary, and formulating basic sentence structures that support the development of the required linguistic skills. In addition, reading comprehension strategies help students improve different skills, like reading fluency (Escar, 2022). The most common strategies are monitoring, questioning, inferring, visualization, prior knowledge, summarizing, and determining the importance of texts (Donnchaidh, 2022).

 

Improving Reading Fluency

Working with the detail of reading fluency is equivalent to the automatic decoding of the linguistic signs of the language studied. Students can get automaticity by reading short texts whose treatment must be repetitive, guided, and understood (Rasinski, 2020). Thus, reading fluency is one of the skills that develop in acquiring a second language; for this reason, it becomes crucial since it allows the development of the ability to speak. Therefore, there are different strategies to improve reading fluency, like repeated reading (Abu-Ayyash, 2020), which sharpen the reading process based on the repetition of words with the correct modeling.

However, it is essential to regard reading comprehension strategies since they help students to comprehend texts, at the same time improving reading fluency like Rasinski (2014) states, �In order to read something with appropriate expression that reflects the author�s purpose and meaning, the reader must have some degree of comprehension of the passage itself.� (p. 4), and in the same way Cicerchia (2022, para. 14) mentions, �If comprehension is a struggle, it can interrupt fluency as students find they cannot follow what they are reading and need to go back to re-read earlier parts of the text.� Therefore, if students have a good comprehension of any text, they will get to improve their reading fluency. Another point to consider is that Escar (2022) refers that �comprehension skills in children can influence their ability to write. Kids who can easily comprehend what they read also have reading fluency� because how to happen with kids can happen with those who want to improve their reading fluency is very critical have in account that comprehension can develop or improve reading fluency.

�On the other hand, non-fluent readers have to spend more time decoding, leaving less time for comprehending the text. Due to mistakes made when reading, they will often have to read the same passage several times to attain comprehension.� �(Nieporent, 2021, para. 1). Only when students comprehend the text, they could read with all the elements that fluency has. (ReadingRockets, 2022). Expression is an element that gives evidence that students understand what they are reading, so readers could be considered fluent. On the contrary, if students do not understand the text, they cannot read with expression; therefore, they cannot be regarded as fluent readers.

Finally, for perfect reading fluency, awareness is necessary. �This is the point where fluency connects directly with comprehension. The prosody component of reading fluency emphasizes the proper use of sentences and expressions� (Rasinski, 2004, p. 4). With this final comment, the author says that fluency connects with comprehension because if students read with awareness of the text, they will be able to appreciate the excellent way to use phrases and expressions; therefore, this would give them good fluidity. Despite that, there are some strategies to improve reading fluency; the comprehension of the text makes reading fluency much more natural.

 

Methodology

Participants

Participants in the present study were composed by two groups: the first group was represented by ten English teachers, seven women, and three men, whose ages ranged from 40 to 50 years old. They had more than 15 years of experience as English teachers, and their first language was Spanish. The second group was composed of sixty-eight students. This sample was taken from 1080 students of the baccalaureate of an Ecuadorian public high school between 16 and 18 years, of which 41 participants were women and 27 were men. Their mother tongue was Spanish.�

Having a population with 1,080 students of baccalaureate in the high school, the sampling formula was applied to determine the number of students who participated in the research:

Where:

� N = Total population (1080)

Zα= 1.96 squared (security is 95%)

p = expected proportion (in this case 5% = 0.05)

q = 1 � p (in this case 1-0.05 = 0.95)

d = precision (5% will be used in the investigation).

Substituting the data in the formula, we get the following:

Therefore, sixty-eight students were assessed.�

 

Instruments

The current study used three interrelated types of instruments to achieve triangulation and thereby reach valid results. The first instrument was a checklist validated by some experts in English teaching and through classroom observation to describe how teachers apply the reading comprehension strategies. The second instrument was a rubric with the permission of its author Jing Chen to assess students and examine their reading fluency level previously considered under the authorization of their legal representative. And the third instrument was a questionnaire with the scale of Likert validated by some experts in English teaching. The questionnaire was applied to survey teachers� backgrounds on the fact that they naturally had direct contact with the students and could have used some reading comprehension strategies to improve their reading fluency.

 

Procedures

During this research, it was necessary to ask for the consent of the headmaster of the institution and the student's legal representative by using a letter to evaluate students and teachers, conforming with the research ethics code (Lima, 2006). This research used a mixed method approach because this study analyzed quantitative and qualitative information. Also, this study applied the theoretical method since it described reading comprehension strategies to increase reading fluency through academic references and empirical methods because it used three instruments for data collection. This research first found enough connections to support the study. Then, a classroom observation was carried out. After that, students were evaluated by reading a passage to determine their level of reading fluency by using a rubric (Chen, 2021) after applying some reading comprehension strategies. Teachers were surveyed to collect the information to reach the objectives. Finally, the analysis determined that reading comprehension strategies improve reading fluency.

 

Results

Observation Analysis

This observation checklist was applied to ten teachers of the foreign language area of a public educational institution to describe how teachers use reading comprehension strategies to improve reading fluency. As a result, teachers applied the strategies explaining to the students the process of pre-reading, during reading, and after reading. Also, they modeled the strategies and guided and assisted students in the activities. Finally, teachers helped students to practice the strategy. (ReadingRockets, 2022).

�Survey Analysis

After applying a survey of twelve questions to ten English teachers of a public educational institution, the analysis provided the information needed to identify which reading comprehension strategies are most applied to increase reading fluency.

 

 

1. �Read the following definitions; which one best describes reading fluency?

Table 1:

Source: English teachers.��

�

It considers essential to know how English teachers describe reading fluency. As a result, 90% of the teachers, which is equivalent to 9 teachers, indicated that reading fluency is the ability to read with the appropriate speed, precision, and expression, 10%, which is equal to one teacher, stated reading fluency is the ability to speak or write a foreign language quickly and accurately. In this regard, reading fluency is best described through the ability to read with the appropriate speed, precision, and expression. This description is according to Nieporent (2021), who states that reading fluency is when people read accurately, smoothly, and with excellent expression.�

 

2. �Read the following definitions and choose the correct one to describe what reading comprehension is.

Table 2:

Source: English teachers.

In this study, knowing the correct definition of reading comprehension was necessary. Therefore, teachers answered, obtaining the result that 100%, equivalent to 10 teachers, stated that reading comprehension is the ability to read a text, process it, and understand its meaning. Therefore, in this regard, it is interpreted that the correct definition of reading comprehension is the ability to read a text, process it, and understand its meaning. This definition is related to Goddess (2022), who says reading comprehension is the ability to understand text and subtext.

3. �According to your Knowledge, what are reading comprehension strategies?

Table 3:

Source: English teachers.����

When analyzing what the reading comprehension strategies are, the result was that 90%, corresponding to 9 respondents, said reading comprehension strategies are conscious plans with sets of steps that readers use to make sense of the text, and 10%, corresponding to one respondent who chose the option that reading comprehension strategies are the rules for reading a textbook. Therefore, reading comprehension strategies are plans with steps that readers use to make sense of the text (Adler, 2022).

4.� Do you consider that reading fluency depends on the comprehension of a text?

Table 4:

 

Source: English teachers.

Knowing if reading fluency depends on the comprehension of a text, results showed that 60% is equivalent to 6 teachers who chose the option that sometimes reading fluency depends on the understanding of a text, 20% is equal to 2 respondents who chose the option that reading fluency usually relies on the comprehension of a text, and 10% is equivalent to a respondent who chose the option that reading fluency rarely depends on the awareness of a text. Considering the most significant result of 60% indicated that reading fluency depends on the comprehension of a text goes, according to Armbruster (2001) states that �fluency changes, depending on what readers are reading, their familiarity with the words, and the amount of their practice with reading text.� (p. 23)

5.� How often do you use the comprehension of texts to improve reading fluency?

Table 6:

Source: English teachers.

To know how often teachers use the comprehension of the texts to improve reading fluency, 50% of respondents, which is equivalent to 5 teachers, said they usually use the comprehension of texts to improve reading fluency, 30%, which is equivalent to 3 teachers, answered sometimes they apply the comprehension of the texts to improve reading fluency and one teacher who equals 10% said always use the comprehension of the texts to improve reading fluency; finally, another teacher who equals 10% stated he never use the comprehension of the texts to improve reading fluency. In this regard, it was possible to interpret that comprehension of the texts is essential to improve reading fluency. This is according to Rasinski (2014), who states that �expression in oral reading, or prosody, is fluency�s connection to meaning or comprehension.� (p.4)

6.- How often do you apply the monitoring comprehension strategy to improve reading fluency?

 

Table 11:

 

Source: English teachers.

When analyzing how often teachers use monitor comprehension strategy to improve reading fluency, the result was that 60%, corresponding to 6 respondents, said that sometimes they use monitor comprehension strategy to improve reading fluency, 30%, reaching three respondents, expressed they usually use monitoring comprehension strategy to improve reading fluency, and 10%, corresponding to one person who responded that usually use monitoring comprehension strategy. The most relevant result was that 60 % of the teachers sometimes used the monitoring comprehension strategy to improve reading fluency, considering that this strategy is a process that determines if students understand what they read. (Reed, 2022)

7. �How often do you apply visualization comprehension strategy to improve reading fluency?

Table 12:

 

Source: English teachers.

 

Knowing how often the visualization compression strategy is applied to improve reading fluency, it was concluded that 50%, corresponding to 5 respondents, sometimes used visualization comprehension strategy to improve reading fluency, 30%, corresponding to 3 respondents, said that they rarely used visualization comprehension strategy to improve reading fluency and 10% that correspond to one respondent who stated that usually used visualization comprehension strategy to improve reading fluency. Therefore, in this regard, visualization compression strategies to improve reading fluency are only applied sometimes by teachers. This strategy helps students to understand text based on �create pictures in their minds as they are reading through a story or text� (Pride, 2022, para. 2)

8. �How often do you apply activating prior knowledge comprehension strategy to improve reading fluency?

Table 13:

Source: English teachers.�

Knowing the frequency that teachers use prior knowledge comprehension strategy to improve reading fluency, answers were that 60% corresponded to 6 teachers, who expressed that they usually use prior knowledge comprehension strategy to improve reading fluency, 30% reached to 3 teachers saying sometimes they use prior knowledge comprehension strategy to improve reading fluency, and 10%� corresponds to one teacher said that rarely use prior knowledge compression strategy to improve reading fluency. The most relevant result is that 60 % of the teachers usually apply prior knowledge comprehension strategies to improve reading fluency. With this frequency, teachers give considerable importance to prior knowledge comprehension strategy since it uses the background of people to comprehend the texts. (Bailey, 2019)

9. �How often do you apply the questioning comprehension strategy to improve reading fluency?

Table 14:

Source: English teachers.��

Knowing the frequency of teachers use questioning comprehension strategy to improve reading fluency. Teachers affirmed in their answers that 70% correspond to 7 respondents, who stated that they usually use questioning comprehension strategy to improve reading fluency, 20 % compared to 2 teachers who said they rarely use questioning comprehension strategy to improve reading fluency, and 10% correspond to one teacher sometimes use questioning comprehension strategy to improve reading fluency. In this regard, it was possible to interpret that the application of questioning comprehension strategy to improve reading fluency is usually applied. In this way, the questioning comprehension strategy helps students to understand the text and different contexts (Taboada, 2012) for that reason helps to develop reading fluency (Ford, 2009).

10. �How often do you apply the inferring comprehension strategy to improve reading fluency?

Table 15:

Source: English teachers.

Knowing how often teachers apply inferring comprehension strategy to improve reading fluency in students, teachers answered, obtaining as a result that 70%, corresponding to 7 respondents, stated as a response that they usually use inferring comprehension strategy to improve reading fluency, 20%, corresponding to 2 respondents, indicated that sometimes they apply inferring comprehension strategy to improve reading fluency and 10% corresponding to a respondent that always applies inferring comprehension strategy to improve reading fluency. Therefore, the most relevant result is that teachers usually use inferring comprehension strategies to improve reading fluency. In this way, students understand the text, inferring answers to it through questions. (Attaprechakul, 2013)

11. �How often do you apply the summarizing comprehension strategy to improve reading fluency?

Table 16:

Source: English teachers.

When finding out the frequency with which teachers use summarizing comprehension strategy to improve reading fluency, the result was that 70%, corresponding to 7 respondents, stated that they usually use summarizing comprehension strategy to improve reading fluency, and 30%, reaching three respondents, stated that sometimes they use summarizing comprehension strategy to improve reading fluency. In this regard, the frequency is that teachers usually apply the summarized comprehension strategy to improve reading fluency. In addition, the summarized comprehension strategy helps students understand the main idea and details of the different texts, and then they write what they understood. (Zafarania, 2014)

12. �How often do you apply the determining importance comprehension strategy to improve reading fluency?

Table 12:

Source: English teachers.

It is essential to know how often teachers apply the determining importance comprehension strategy to improve reading fluency in students. 40%, corresponding to 4 respondents, indicate that sometimes they apply this strategy to improve reading fluency, 30%, reaching to 3 respondents, state that they usually apply the determining importance comprehension strategy to improve reading fluency, 20 % corresponds to 2 respondents responded they rarely use the determining importance comprehension strategy to improve reading fluency and 10% that corresponds to one respondent responded that always apply the determining importance comprehension strategy to improve reading fluency. In this regard, the frequency is that sometimes teachers use determining importance comprehension strategy to improve reading fluency, but it is not less important since it determines the most critical information and the most interesting but not necessary to understand texts. (Reeson., 2015).

Analysis of the assessment of reading fluency

To achieve the verification of the effects of applying reading comprehension strategies in activities related to reading fluency, it was necessary to evaluate to know the level of fluency that the students had after having applied some of the reading comprehension strategies. The evaluation was carried out through a rubric which is presented in the following analysis.

Score	Level	Description
0	Insufficient	Insufficient sample for the rating (fewer than 12 words read aloud correctly).
1	Word by Word	Less than � of the words were read aloud with appropriate expression. Reading focuses on individual words (not phrases, sentences, the passage). Reading is all or mostly monotone.
2	Local Grouping 8.82%   6 students	More than � and less than � of the words were read aloud with appropriate expression. Reading focuses on local word groups (with little to no focus on phrases, sentences, or the passage) The reading may be mostly arrhythmic or monotone.
3	Phrase & Clause   13.24   9 students	More than � of the words were read aloud with appropriate expressions. Reading expresses the structure or meaning of words, phrases, clauses, and a few sentences (with little or no focus on the passage). Intonation may sometimes reinforce rhythmic grouping, or reading may be monotone.
4	Sentence Prosody   64.70 44 students	More than � of the words were read aloud with appropriate expression. You are reading correctly, including structure and meaning (which may include non-local text connections). Reading can be occasionally inconsistent but not monotone. The reading rate is at least 55 words per minute (at least 80 text words read to merit this level or above).
5	Passage Expression   13.24   9 students	The passage is read as if for a listener�of the passage portion read aloud, all or nearly all (at least 90 percent) is read with appropriate expression. The reading consistently expresses the structure and meaning of sentences, paragraphs, and the passage as a whole (which may include non-local text connections). Read, may include a few words, stumbles, or misleading, but it is expressive throughout. The reading rate is at least 80 words per minute (at least 120 text-words-read to merit this level).

 

After the assessment, 9 students, corresponding to 13.24% of the sample, read the passage aloud, all or nearly all (at least 90 percent) with appropriate expression. Also, they read consistently, expressing the structure and meaning of sentences, paragraphs, and the passage as a whole (which may include non-local text connections). Although Reading may include a few words, stumbles, or misleading, it is expressive throughout. Students got a rate at least 80 words per minute (at least 120 text-words-read to merit this level) (Barnard, 2018). With the items mentioned above, nine students got the highest score (5) on the rubric.

The majority of the students who were 44, corresponding to 64.70% of the sample, read more than � of the words aloud with appropriate expression, and they read correctly, including structure and meaning (which may include non-local text connections). However, reading was occasionally inconsistent but not monotone. Their reading rate is at least 55 words per minute (at least 80 text words read to merit this level or above) (Barnard, 2018). Forty-four students got a score of 4 on the rubric.

Another group of 9 students, corresponding to 13.24 % of the sample, read more than � of the words aloud with appropriate expressions. Their reading expressed the structure or meaning of words, phrases, clauses, and a few sentences (with little or no focus on the passage). And the intonation may sometimes reinforce rhythmic grouping, or reading may be monotone. Nine students got a score of 3 on the rubric.�

A group of 6 students who were the minority corresponded to 8.82 % of the sample, read more than � and less than � of the words aloud with appropriate expression. Their reading focused on local word groups (with little to no focus on phrases, sentences, or the passage). Also, the reading may be mostly arrhythmic or monotone. This group of students got a score of 2 on the rubric. No student got a score of 1 reading word by word or nothing with an insufficient reading.

Conclusions

One of the objectives of this study was to describe how reading comprehension strategies were applied to improve reading fluency, which was possible through an observation checklist, and having as result that teachers explained, exemplified, guided, assisted, and helped students to practice the strategy. Throughout the process of applying the reading comprehension strategy, it can be concluded that the form of application is not the problem for teachers; the problem is the frequency with that they use the strategies because they do not use strategies regularly. Therefore, it is the point where teachers should be encouraged to regularly use strategies to improve fluency in students and, at the same time, become a topic for future research.

Another objective was to identify the strategies teachers applied the most to improve fluency. As a result, they used more questioning strategies, summarizing strategies, and inferring strategies, concluding that it is good that teachers have a tendency towards strategies that give them more results. However, teachers should use various strategies to help students with their reading fluency. In addition, teachers must see the necessity to apply the strategies more regularly since the survey results showed that they use reading comprehension strategies but not frequently. Therefore, at the moment, teachers use different reading comprehension strategies to improve reading fluency; it will be better for them since they will not be falling into the monotony of repeating the same strategies constantly.

Finally, we have that a fluency evaluation was carried out on the students to analyze the effects of the application of the reading comprehension strategies, which was obtained as a result that the majority of the students had a better fluency after the application of reading comprehension strategies, concluding that applying strategies more regularly will help students improve their fluency more effectively.

 

Discussion ��

The results showed that applying reading comprehension strategies improve reading fluency, which coincides with the investigations of Rasinski (2020) and McNamara (2007). In contrast, other studies indicate that reading fluency helps reading comprehension (Rasinski, 2004). Within this study, it was possible to detect that after applying the reading comprehension strategies, students had an acceptable fluency because they understood what they read. This result was obtained by an assessment and graded with a fluency rubric. It confirms the importance of reading comprehension strategies that agrees with the study of Salmeron (2010) and that without strategies, it is difficult to develop any comprehension activity, coinciding with Song (1998). The limitation in this study was a short-term study; therefore, an evaluation was not carried out before applying the reading comprehension strategies to have more precise results to compare before and after the application of strategies. This study showed that other topics for the future could be exposed, such as reading fluency could help the comprehension of texts.

Appendix

Appendix A

Instrument # 1

Questioners for teachers

�To identify which reading comprehension strategies are most applied to increase reading fluency.

Directions: Read each question carefully and answer according to your experience, marking the corresponding option. Your input is precious to this analysis.

1.- Read the following definitions: which one do you consider best describes reading fluency?

a. _______ The ability to speak or write a foreign language quickly and accurately.

b. _______ The ability to express oneself easily and articulately.

c. _______ Repetition of texts.

d. _______The ability to read with appropriate speed, accuracy, and expression.

e. _______ The comprehension of a text.

2.- Read the following definitions and choose the correct one to describe what reading comprehension is.

a. _______ The ability to speak or write a foreign language quickly and accurately.

b. _______ The ability to read text, process it, and understand its meaning.

c. _______ Repetition of texts.

d. _______The ability to read with appropriate speed, accuracy, and expression.

e. _______ The comprehension of a text.

3.- According to your Knowledge, what are reading comprehension strategies?

a. _______ The ability to speak or write a foreign language quickly and accurately.

b. _______ The ability to read text, process it, and understand its meaning.

c. _______ Conscious plans with sets of steps that readers use to make sense of the text.

d. _______The ability to read with appropriate speed, accuracy, and expression.

e. _______ Rules to read a text.

4.-� Do you consider that reading fluency depends on reading comprehension of a text?

a. ______ Always

b. ______ Usually

c. ______ Sometimes

d. ______ Rarely

e. ______ Never

5.- How often do you use the comprehension of texts to improve reading fluency?

a. ______ Always

b. ______ Usually

c. ______ Sometimes

d. ______ Rarely

e. ______ Never

e. ______ Never

6.- How often do you apply the monitoring Comprehension Strategy to improve reading fluency?

a. ______ Always

b. ______ Usually

c. ______ Sometimes

d. ______ Rarely

e. ______ Never

7.- How often do you apply visualization Comprehension Strategy to improve reading fluency?

a. ______ Always

b. ______ Usually

c. ______ Sometimes

d. ______ Rarely

e. ______ Never

8.- How often do you apply activating Prior Knowledge Comprehension Strategy to improve reading fluency?

a. ______ Always

b. ______ Usually

c. ______ Sometimes

d. ______ Rarely

e. ______ Never

9.- How often do you apply the Questioning Comprehension Strategy to improve reading fluency?

a. ______ Always

b. ______ Usually

c. ______ Sometimes

d. ______ Rarely

e. ______ Never

10.- How often do you apply the Inferring Comprehension Strategy to improve reading fluency?

a. ______ Always

b. ______ Usually

c. ______ Sometimes

d. ______ Rarely

e. ______ Never

11.- How often do you apply the Summarizing Comprehension Strategy to improve reading fluency?

a. ______ Always

b. ______ Usually

c. ______ Sometimes

d. ______ Rarely

e. ______ Never

12.- How often do you apply the Determining Importance Comprehension Strategy to improve reading fluency?

a. ______ Always

b. ______ Usually

c. ______ Sometimes

d. ______ Rarely

e. ______ Never

 

Appendix B

Instrument # 2

To analyze the effects of applying reading comprehension strategies in activities related to reading fluency.

Oral Reading Fluency rubric.

Score	Level	Description
0	Insufficient	Insufficient sample for the rating (fewer than 12 words read aloud correctly).
1	Word by Word	Less than � of the words were read aloud with appropriate expression. Reading focuses on individual words (not phrases, sentences, the passage). Reading is all or mostly monotone.
2	Local Grouping	More than � and less than � of the words were read aloud with appropriate expression. Reading focuses on local word groups (with little to no focus on phrases, sentences, or the passage) The reading may be mostly arrhythmic or monotone.
3	Phrase & Clause	More than � of the words were read aloud with appropriate expression. Reading expresses the structure or meaning of words, phrases, clauses, and a few sentences (with little or no focus on the passage). Intonation may sometimes reinforce rhythmic grouping, or reading may be monotone.
4	Sentence Prosody	More than � of the words were read aloud with appropriate expression. You are reading correctly, including structure and meaning (which may include non-loal text connections). Reading can be occasionally inconsistent, but not monotone. The reading rate is at least 55 words per minute (at least 80 text-words-read to merit this level or above).
5	Passage Expression	The passage is read as if for a listener�of the passage portion read aloud, all or nearly all (at least 90 percent) is read with appropriate expression. The reading consistently expresses the structure and meaning of sentences, paragraphs, and the passage as a whole (which may include non-local text connections). Read, ng may include a few words, stumbles, or misleading, but it is expressive throughout. The reading rate is at least 80 words per minute (at least 120 text-words-read to merit this level).

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics, National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) 2018 Oral Reading Fluency study.

 

Appendix C

Instrument # 3

Checklist

To describe ways for applying reading comprehension strategies to increase reading fluency.

The information on the items and criteria was taken from the webpage Reading Rockets (2022)

Items	Criteria	Yes	Sometimes	No
�        Direct explanation	The teacher explains to students why the strategy helps comprehension and when to apply the strategy.
�        Modeling	The teacher models, or demonstrates, how to apply the strategy, usually by "thinking aloud" while reading the text that the students are using.
�        Guided practice	The teacher guides and assists students as they learn how and when to apply the strategy.
�        Application	The teacher helps students practice the strategy until they can apply it independently.

 

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